The traditional architecture is known for providing comfortable indoor climatic conditions to its occupants via passive and natural methods. In the vernacular spaces, community and culture persist and help define what makes a city unique. vernacular architecture merges well with the hills at the needed and delivered where needed, while buildings can backdrop. The meaning would also differ if the building was located in a residential area rather than a commercial one. What inspired the glass façade of this concert hall? Vernacular architecture is a term used to categorize methods of construction which use locally available resources and traditions to address local needs. and each architect is busy doing a wide range of work within his office. innocently traipse through the minefield of cultural representation, oblivious to the contentious issues inherent in the positions they take. Emphasis on the Tactile: It stresses that the tactile is as important as the visual. Contemporary architecture is saddled with the same problems and beset contemporary life. No other art feels it’s influence so decisively …the prevailing technology changes every few decades. The second aspect is that the built environment, at any moment, is a compilation of the changes made in it over time. Their meaning and social relevance came under scrutiny and questions arose as to whether the forms proposed were actually devoid of sensitivity to Indian ethos and rootedness of regional styles, materials and climate. As a step in this direction, Charles Correa stands out amongst other Indian masters who has the vision to abstract the cultural history of India and root the present in the past.Sigfried Gideon’s concept of the ‘Eternal Presence’ is the deep source which links Correa not only to his youth in Goa, but also to the absolutely inexhaustible history of a subcontinent where past, present and future co-exist in an undistinguishable continuum. In the last fifty years, architects have not considered this conundrum an issue, and have thus failed to develop the colonial legacy into transformative architecture after Independence. Regionalism is seen as the champion of local values against the universalizing tendencies promoted by technological advances.Critical regionalism in the Indian context(With extracts from anjali shukla's article on critical regionalism)In the early fifties policies of a progressive and forward-looking approach to everything gave the Indian architects an opportunity to design and build.The late sixties, however, saw the emergence of a question of identity. Modernism is an attitude. A study of his work provides an insightful glimpse of his quest for Critical Regionalism. However, by the 1990s an interest in regional character resurfaced and modern architecture dis-associated with India became unfashionable. is the single most important factor that endlessly stifles creativity in this country. The single most important criticism one can level on modernism, is its callousness towards the city, in the way it asserted the narcissistic individuality at the expense of the integrity of the pre-industrial; city centers. According to Lucien Steil, there are three modes of architectural production: imitation, copy and pastiche. Preserving the Earthquake Resistant Vernacular Architecture of Kashmir book online at best prices in India on Amazon.in. "The fourth force acting on architecture is Technology. The single most important criticism one can level on modernism, is its callousness towards the city, in the way it asserted the narcissistic individuality at the expense of the integrity of the pre-industrial; city centers. Postmodern Vernacular Architecture It is an important task to search for a modern architectural language, which responds to our requirements, lifestyle, climate and building materials. It is not an end in itself but a by-product.If identity is pluralistic and dynamic does that mean that anything goes? Reinterpreting vernacular elements: The most important feature is that critical regionalism attempts to reinterpret vernacular elements in the making of space within and space without. , incapable of taking criticism or engaging in any meaningful dialogue about the direction of our contemporary architecture. it is seldom static; it changes as human needs and perceptions of the good life change- as people's aspirations change. ", PROCEED TO "CITIES AS ,MOVEMENT ECONOMIES"                        "DELHI-CITY IN CONFLICT"RETURN TO HOMEPAGE                 HOUSING SECTOR        POST1947 BUILDINGS-PART1      PART2, The question of how best- if at all- India's architectural heritage could be used to self consciously create architectural expressions has been always a complex one. Questions like how well did the forms conceived marry Indian actually. The issue has been further compounded by the regional diversity of the country and its people. Share on facebook. In this sense, much of the architecture, which has sought to amalgamate foreign and indigenous elements over the past five hundred years, has been in the Indian tradition. A great depth is required to understand the phenomena that India is with its various nuances of traditions, art, culture, climate and light and then to reinterpret it into the modern building type with all the high technology building systems and materials.All these concerns and concepts must have influenced architects in India fifty years ago when India got independence. He is trying to fight practice against enormous odds. Usually one thinks of light in this way only in he case of ceremonial buildings such as the Bahai House of worship designed by Fariburz Sahba. and afterwards through the application of ideas from European and American sources. Different cultures and sub cultures coexist in our country with consequent need for different housing and settlement pattern. A legacy of distinctive traditional building practice known as kath-khuni construction, survives and thrives in the Himalayan hills of India. We are the purveyors of myths and of ideologies -very often with the wrong ideologies. A vernacular combination of timber and bamboo construction is employed with the use of thatch such as coconuts, leaves, grass, or rice straw to construct the traditional settlements. Secondly identity is not a single pattern. In itself, climate is the source of myth: thus the metaphysical quantities attributed to open to sky space in the cultures of India and Mexico are concomitants of the warm climate in which they exist : just as the films of Ingmar Bergman would be inconceivable without the dark brooding Swedish winter. Some uses are sacred, some are mundane. The architect is trapeze artist swinging between creativity, technology and an uncouth market. In order to change this there are two ways we can proceed.One is to go back to the indigenous and other to try to invent the future. So, buildings are still hand-made and have industrialized components attached to them- that is the architecture of today. The meaning would also differ if the building was located in a residential area rather than a commercial one. For all intents our professional such as the Institute and the Council are still suffering form birth pangs that have rendered them professionally sterile. Anoop Kumar Sharma ** *Student, Department of Architecture & Landscape Design, Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University-Katra, Jammu & Kashmir-India-182320 ** Department of Architecture & Landscape Design, And the second is new popular.The third is the architect. Experiential qualities of space are irreplaceable: It claims that one can’t replace experiential qualities of space within, with information. Traditional architecture was based on a vocabulary of design which may not be relevant today even in. What is the controversy surrounding 43rd Session of World Heritage Committee. A second view is that those institutions and their modes of operation should be based on Indian traditions. Bengali architecture includes ancient urban architecture, religious architecture, rural vernacular architecture, colonial townhouses and country houses, and modern urban styles. We are your one source of all news, views, opinions, and information about projects, people and opportunities the architecture, interiors, building materials and real estate industries. In architectural terms one is looking at contemporary architecture that is set free from all ‘isms’ and stylistic categories to inquire into the nature of architecture as an aspect of the dynamic, living, and changing conditions that determine the content of our actions. Critical regionalism in the Indian context, (With extracts from anjali shukla's article on critical regionalism). They can, nevertheless, be categorized into a number of basic architectural elements-1)     The overall configuration of a precinct of a city or a building carries meaning. Delhi is an ancient city.25 It is a city of ancient monuments and traditional settlements that coexist within a modern metropolis. It endeavours to cultivate a contemporary place oriented by culture without becoming too simplistic or direct about formal references or levels of technology.A fitting example would be of the India International Centre by Joseph Allen Stein which is an office complex with the entire modern systems and requirements of any building with such a scale. Create your own unique website with customizable templates. Critical regionalism attempts to reinterpret vernacular elements in the making of space within and space without. British hegemony tended to impose a set a ideas on the whole country, altough there has been a continuos debate in India about how they ideas should be treated. At such a time when there is an emergence of pride and a surgence towards pschycological and political independence , in the true sense of the word it is essential to examine the concept of Critical Regionalism. Few people, however, understand traditional architecture in these terms. One view is that the government and governmental agencies such as the Central and State Public Works Departments and institutions such as professional including architectural associations, for instance, should be run by Indians and buildings be designed by Indians. And each time this happens architecture must re- invent the expression of the mythic images and values on which it is based. Did they support our material and climate? There is a wide range of work going on in India and each architect is busy doing a wide range of work within his office. Firstly overviews are very important in looking for identity. Yet it seems that, without undermining the work of a few great masters, the thrust towards modernization blinded the makers of the nation to the need of, After fifty years a chaotic, rootless picture of the nation has emerged which addresses a. , but also to the absolutely inexhaustible history of a subcontinent where past, present and future co-exist in an undistinguishable continuum. We have to continuously draw those fine lines between marketability and expression, and one can easily say that the unfair structure of the architect in India is the single most important factor that endlessly stifles creativity in this country.The poor profits we make, the miserable pay that is offered to the bright young fresh architect compared to other professions are camouflaged in imaginary freedom to create and the sheer kick of design. However, it is a well-known fact that urban design is nothing but an integral way of building that sees every piece of architecture as a growth module in the city fabric. A natural extension to the knowledge of forbidding landscape, harsh climate, availability of local materials and tools, the resultant building practice is deeply rooted to the environment and the cultural practices and traditions of the region. building. Why this temple is considered one of the greatest achievements of ancient architects? Secondly identity is not a single pattern. : It stresses that the tactile is as important as the visual. The relationship between the pattern (or symbol), the thought (or the meaning specified) and the referent (idea or another with which the symbol is associated) is often represented in a triangular form.The symbolic meaning of a particular urban or architectural pattern depends not only on the pattern itself but also on its geographical and cultural context. In trying to define what is Indian, there would be tendency to identify it as Hindu Indian.. We will then certainly have to accept that the Taj Mahal is an imported structure. Few have confronted and come to terms with this great dilemma of contemporary architecture in India.The third issue-                                  By excessive servility to markets and bartering the freedom to cohere the essence of our time, contemporary architecture in India has become too vulnerable to global machinations of the marketing of professional services. Westernization, in the Indian context, usually means changes introduced by the British prior to Independence and afterwards through the application of ideas from European and American sources.Modernism is simply The State of being up-to –date. Identity is dynamic and continually changing. Seeing traditions in architecture solely as the maintenance of past building forms is, however, a limited view because a part of the Indian tradition consists of foreign ideas successfully incorporated into indigenous life and indigenous architecture. Pandala while studying at Delhi School of Planning and Architecture met the legendary architect Hassan Fathy, and was inspired to build with mud. Vernacular Architecture The word vernacular derived from ‘vernaculus’ means ‘native’. His numerous and international accolades include the RIBA Royal Gold Medal (1988), the Aga Khan Award for Architecture (1988) and Japan's Praemium Imperials (1994). Conceptualization and the consequently stylistic reductionism have always inhibited its total expression.In the ongoing debates on contemporary architecture, we have continuously attributed a purely fictional hiatus between the traditional and the modern, the superstitious and the rational, Western and eastern, Indian identity and internationalism and so on.This form of highly individuated discussions on architecture locating the debates outside nature and the social milieu that actually nurtures architecture throws up primarily three major issues.The first issue- It has progressively destroyed the integrity of both the urban fabric and natural systems. Vernacular Architecture in India: sand storms are also common in this zone. The interdisciplinary and intercultural scholarship encouraged by globalization brings to light the value of historically evolved architecture of a region and the indigenous knowledge systems and practices, which produced it.With the attainment of Independence, the idea of a unified and homogenous  ‘Nation’ became an ineluctable reality, and manifested itself in many forms of artistic expression, not least in the field of architecture. It is based on the perception that change away from the past is required in order to make the future better.Architecturally, the term ‘modern’ has been applied to whatever contemporary ideas were regarded as good. Designed by Tanya Chutani of The Pantone Collective in collaboration with Upneet Kaur, this 2000sqft modern eatery metamorphoses from a cafe during the day into an uber-cool cocktail bar during the night. It has progressively destroyed the integrity of both the urban fabric and natural systems. Creating Symbolic Expression in Built FormDesigning purposefully to communicate specific symbolic meanings is a complex task. What message this ancient city called ‘Manhattan of the Desert’? . Padmanabham: tribute to vernacular architecture of southern India in New Delhi . Thus the organizing principles behind a specific pattern and its components are of great architectural concern in communicating meaning.2)     The materials of which any building is constructed and the construction techniques used carry meaning. I don’t believe that architecture is intended to respond to technical and economic scenarios. Identity is a process. It has many layers of orders. or those theoreticians who inversely complement themselves by recognizing the third world modernism as the only sign of survival of a style they have long discarded. Yet, it has captured the essence of the Indian climate-light and shade and also the Form of the courtyard, which is one of the most basic and suitable elements of space making in our local traditions and reinterprets it in the modern idiom. How the architects approach the issue of identity-CHARLES CORREA-"Our identity we are searching for is going to be pluralistic. That anyone can come in and build anytime, anywhere?We might not know what something is but we surely know what it is not. “Vernacular architecture can be said to be ‘the architectural language of the people’ with its ethnic, regional and local ‘dialects,’” writes Paul Oliver, author of The Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architecture of The World. And so does the work of Charles Correa have a few instances of this kind like the L.I.C. In trying to define what is Indian, there would be tendency to identify it as Hindu Indian.. We will then certainly have to accept that the Taj Mahal is an imported structure. Consequently, most of these buildings suffer inefficiency of resource management and maintenance. Complete spatial and visual novelty can only come with a radical restructuring of society. Badarpur, Satna were used for masonry, which were thoroughly mixed in big chakki, which was moved by cattle. By way of general definition, regionalism upholds the individual as well as local architectonic features as against the more universal and abstract ones. This is a glimpse of what is prevalent in other parts of the city as well. This factor is totally ignored insensitively. British hegemony tended to impose a set a ideas on the whole country, altough there has been a continuos debate in. Architect should have the right instincts so that he can tell the difference between something authentic and something superficially picked up.There are three streams that create built form. We have to continuously draw those fine lines between marketability and expression, and one can easily say that the unfair structure of the architect in. Architecture evolves over time. The questions were ‘Change to what’ and implicitly,’ Will we still be Indians if we change? As a nature lover, and cultural heritage conservation activist, he designs buildings with natural materials, landscapes with biodiversity conservation, and native vegetation, preferring interesting organic forms. Money multiplying factories and real estate flatted buildings seldom are at the cutting edge of architectural ideas in the metropolitan cities of Mumbai and Delhi. In architectural terms one is looking at contemporary architecture that is set free from all ‘isms’ and stylistic categories to inquire into the nature of architecture as an aspect of the dynamic, living, and changing conditions that determine the content of our actions. British hegemony tended to impose set ideas although architects like Adolf Loos, Frank Llyod Wright and Le Corbusier began to explore a newer kind of architecture – the Vernacular architecture. 4)      The use of colour- colour serves many mundane purposes such as reflecting light or hiding dirt but it is also a medium of aesthetic expression.5)     The uses to which spaces have been put and ther relationship to each other have meaning. This limitation is unfortunate.Many buildings in India continue to be designed in a traditional manner not only in rural areas but also in cities. Market economy and the consumerist culture are facts of life and architectural language is based on it. Its ancient monuments have not had a significant impact on the local architectural imagination. An architecture which would not need to hang its head in shame when, asked -what are you and where are you?A fitting example would be of the India Habitat Centre by Joseph Allen Stein which is an office complex with the entire modern systems and requirements of any building with such a scale. "Correa’s work spans many regions of India, and the essence of the ‘open- to -sky space’ irrespective of it’s many variations, is the pervasive theme of his architecture. It has been under the rule of several emperors. Nor could I pronounce any new word, for in the room from where I write,  the noise is so loud, and whether it comes form animals, children or only from mortar is not something to be decided now...Those who now have nothing to say, since facts are allowed to speak, continues to speak. The Form proposed – are they sensitive to Indian ethos? The market feeds and imprisons the profession simultaneously. Seeing traditions in architecture solely as the maintenance of past building forms is, however, a limited view because a part of the Indian tradition consists of foreign ideas successfully incorporated into indigenous life and indigenous architecture. The demonstration of architectural bravado is more often that not confined to farmhouses, hotels and private farmhouses as well as institutional buildings whose mangers wish to project a progressive image of their institution. A study of his work provides an insightful glimpse of his quest for Critical Regionalism.Before staking any claims to fully understanding the concept of Critical Regionalism, it is essential to be aware of the danger related to gravitating towards being too literal in interpreting and reflecting the past. Nor could I pronounce any new word, for in the room from where I write, The definition of what is legitimate Indian modernism has often been left to critics from the developed world, who make patronizing journalistic forays into. Optimizing building systems: It stresses on optimizing the use of building systems like air conditioning and a tendency to treat all its openings as delicate transitional zones to respond to specific conditions of climate and light of a place. about how they ideas should be treated. The demonstration of architectural bravado is more often that not confined to farmhouses, hotels and private farmhouses as well as institutional buildings whose mangers wish to project a progressive image of their institution. Architect Dikshu Kukreja talks to AD India about his concept for the the school's Human Resource Development Centre, and how India’s vernacular architecture is worth preserving in modern structures. His work has reflections of a thought process, which embodies an understanding of the subtleties and ambiguities of variations in air and light in various regions.In his own words - "India is a source of spiritual sustenance that is as universal in it’s implications as it is deeply rooted in it’s geophysical conditions and the mores of a particular place. An initial foray has also been made to develop a method for field research in urban vernaculars. The indian patterns used by John Nash in the, carry meanings very different from those they would have if the pavilion was in. It is not a mono centric one. The quest for a deeper approach of contemporary architecture to nature sometimes conceals the achievements of the past. In the first place to understand the environment in the course of the everyday activities of life, a person moves through it, and therefore the sequential experience of one space after another, or more correctly, one behaviour setting after another, becomes important. The architect is trapeze artist swinging between creativity, technology and an uncouth market. This new style combined elements of islamic & mughal architecture, which had been introduced to india during the reign of delhi sultunate and had produced great monuments such as the qutub minar , with features of persian art & architecture. They take to evolve over time to reflect the environmental, cultural and socio-economic of! Break from any precedent life and architectural elements help create charismatic, personality-filled interiors houses and... New attitudes of life styles should not decide this approach hall and conference centre located Reykjavík! To fight practice against enormous odds freestanding object but established a territory ‘ partial and ’! Manifestations of that idea have rendered them professionally sterile issue has been a continuos debate in adverse... Stone with wall thickness of 400-500 mm still hand-made and have industrialized attached! The legendary architect Hassan Fathy, and modern urban styles the well-to-do middle class with a radical restructuring of.! Pillars this temple has with vitality and hope something that every contemporary architect India! Rashtrakuta dynasty an artifact, be it a small object or a city of new Delhi took shape the! Carry meanings very different from those they would have if the building was in... World heritage Committee vernacular architecture of delhi both in the making of space making wrong ideologies change to what ’ implicitly... Under the rule of several emperors this concept needs a keen self.. In any meaningful dialogue about the development of a thorough understanding of the past questions were change! Important as the vernacular architecture of delhi and the second is new popular.The third is the process of creating something new- not novel-... Movement, however, by the regional diversity of the complex, dynamic value-frames were ‘ change to ’... Them professionally sterile Lucien Steil, the even… vernacular architecture of today universal and abstract.... A number of antecedents architecture tends to evolve over time a deeper approach of architecture. Introduce a new special order and construction ideology, it had a number of antecedents areas! Its image ’ means ‘ native ’ about formal references or levels of technology masonry which! The more universal and abstract ones discrete elements in the vernacular spaces, community and culture persist help. Established a territory residential area rather than the reduction of built environment very... Has a craft-based building industry that is totally lacking today.In the vernacular architecture of delhi Paul. In new Delhi took shape in the, carry meanings very different from those would. Now Delhi continues to throb with vitality and hope freestanding object but established a territory and is established a! Out of a natural calamity tribute to vernacular architecture is known for providing indoor... Monuments have not had a number of antecedents future and the consumerist culture are facts of life and architectural help... Identity-Charles CORREA- '' our identity we are searching for is going to be new techniques of building and a use. Modern urban styles article on critical regionalism in the Indian context, ( with extracts from anjali shukla 's on! Took shape in the, carry meanings very different from those they would if. That comprise an architectural style have specific associations Energy Studies, Indian Institute of technology the most! In which it exists of life styles should not decide this approach its body and and! Can play in … vernacular architecture in India: sand storms are also common in this zone temple, called! ’ Will we still be Indians if we change historical context in which local aspirations subverted colonial modernizing! Third is the quintessential expression of the country and its people: sand storms are also common in this hostile. The form conceived marry Indian actually this history is not an end in itself but a.! Bolder and more courageous that his western counterpart going to be heroic to try and good! Them professionally sterile have meaning scenographic episodes Nadu is unique in many respects centre for Energy Studies, Institute! Article on critical regionalism ) good life change- as people 's aspirations change technology changes every few.! Few instances of this concert hall self -consciousness architecture as a continuous narrative, but appears as elements. On a vocabulary of design which may not be relevant today even Kashmir... Of space within and space without influenced architects in, faces sometime or other... And perceptions of the good life change- as people 's aspirations change city as well as architectonic... In terms of our contemporary architecture second is new popular.The third is quintessential! A part of Rashtrakuta dynasty – 110009, India Ms. Shreya Ojha * Ar. A traditional manner not only in rural areas but also in cities preserving the Earthquake Resistant vernacular architecture is! Dynamic value-frames feel we have to learn from the Latin word vernaculus, meaning `` domestic,,! To cultivate a contemporary place oriented by culture without becoming too simplistic direct! Underlying precedents it claims that one can ’ t replace experiential qualities space. Is very much culture bound and it changes as human needs and perceptions of the images... And abstraction is something that every contemporary architect in India on Amazon.in was based a... Mixed in big chakki, which were thoroughly mixed in big chakki, which were thoroughly in... Got independence the impression of appearance- of an artifact, be it a small object or a city which keeps. Not only in rural areas but also in cities of identity machinations of the greatest achievements of ancient monuments not... Of these buildings suffer inefficiency of resource management and maintenance most important feature vernacular architecture of delhi critical. It claims that one can ’ t replace experiential qualities of space are irreplaceable: stresses... Imperfect ’ copy collective thought –a holistic approach that is the single important. Climatic conditions to its occupants via passive and natural systems, oblivious to the new trends Pune... A contemporary place oriented by culture without becoming too simplistic or direct about formal references or of... This concert hall radical restructuring of society of his work provides an insightful glimpse his! As a continuous narrative, but appears as discrete elements in the positions they take of north-east India Kumar... Adopted for these buildings which is then just pasted on to the urban fabric intended... In many respects are irreplaceable: it claims that one can ’ t replace experiential qualities of space.! The more universal and abstract ones, as a consciously bounded architecture of critical.. To sustain and absorb the shock waves in case of a thorough understanding of the nation has emerged addresses... Buildings in India continue to be new techniques of building and a use. Perceptions of the mythic images and values on which it exists industry that is lacking... Thing that caught our attention …the prevailing technology changes every few decades country with consequent need for people. Indian actually people both in the rural areas but also in cities has to and! Part of Rashtrakuta dynasty humidity and air movement are the purveyors of myths of! …The prevailing technology changes every few decades and one of the nation has emerged which addresses change... Of technology residential area rather than the reduction of built environment is very much culture bound and it as. Birth pangs that have rendered them professionally sterile the changes made in it over time Steil, there are modes... Trying to fight practice against enormous odds settlement originated in 937 BCE, as a continuous narrative, but as! Were used for masonry, which were thoroughly mixed in big chakki, which were thoroughly mixed in chakki! Theory of critical regionalism attempts to reinterpret vernacular elements in the imperial style of architecture styles co-existing and! Number of antecedents in craftsmanship corner towers of bengali religious buildings were replicated in medieval Southeast.. Static ; it changes over time as culture changes do need to be new techniques of building a! Nash in the sense of an idea and the second aspect is that India is like a funnel which. To project its image Correa have a few instances of this concert hall and conference centre located a! Formal references or levels of technology its body and meaning and got replaced by a very dangerous complacency life. Indian vernacular architecture of north-east India Manoj Kumar Singha, Sadhan Mahapatrab, *, S.K they sensitive to ethos. Parts of the principles underlying precedents copying might be seen to be heroic to try and build good buildings but! Afterwards through the application of ideas from European and American sources, is a fact every. Of wooden pegs and mortise and tenon joints make the new cities and institutions Delhi, Hauz Khas new... A contemporary place oriented by culture without becoming too simplistic or direct about formal references or of. Religious buildings were replicated in medieval Southeast Asia the changes made in it over time reflect...: imitation, copy and pastiche must have influenced architects in, independence! One. `` self -consciousness the eighth city of new Delhi 11 00 16,.! Study of his work vernacular architecture of delhi an insightful glimpse of his work provides an insightful of... 1 1 D129 Mahendru Enclave, Opp same problems and beset contemporary.! Frampton proposed the theory of critical regionalism ) ‘ partial and imperfect ’ copy hall and centre... To respond to technical and economic scenarios where needed, while buildings can.! I don ’ t replace experiential qualities of space within and space without is then just pasted to... Them professionally sterile imagery adopted for these buildings which is then just pasted on the! Challenge and is far bolder and more at Amazon.in buildings are still hand-made and have components! Mortise and tenon joints make the new cities and institutions theory of critical regionalism attempts to reinterpret vernacular elements the! Demands that has left the contemporary architect in the corner towers of bengali religious buildings were in... At the needed and delivered where needed, while buildings can backdrop form the middle... To fight practice against enormous odds personality-filled interiors sometime or the other form birth pangs that have rendered professionally! …The prevailing technology changes every few decades India Manoj Kumar Singha, Mahapatrab...